Information structure
Other sections of this site are mostly concerned with the way that basic clauses are constructed and combined in English. In this section we consider the way that the grammar of the language can be manipulated by speakers to allow them to modify the way information is presented. Motivations for doing this include:
Making the information easier for the hearer/reader to understand
Making the message more convincing
Avoiding having to talk about unpleasant or inconvenient things
The remainder of this page reviews the usual structure of information within the clause and introduces three principles that reflect the way that people make use of more elaborate grammatical structures in order to communicate their message. The basic arrangement of information in spoken or written English is to begin with an established topic and then make a comment on it. This follows the widely recognised communicative and pedagogical strategy of starting with what people already know. The principles of end focus, front focus and end weight build off of this basic premise.
Contents1. How information structuring is organised in English grammar 3. End focus 4. Front focus 5. End weight Related pages |
The use of passives, existentials, cleft constructions, dislocation and inversion are all ways to modify the order of elements in a sentence.
How information structuring is organised in English grammar
The grammatical pattern of spreading information across the subject and the predicate maps against the pragmatic signals we usually expect, with given information coming before new information. This is illustrated below:
Clause type |
topic |
comment |
---|---|---|
given |
new |
|
Subject |
Predicate |
|
Basic clause |
A runaway shopping trolley |
hit Jude last week. |
In other words, the grammatical pattern is overlayed with a pragmatic pattern that speakers use in order to identify the important information in the clause. Here are some examples showing how English can reorganise the word order to allow different aspects of the clause to be in focus.
Clause type |
|
topic |
comment |
---|---|---|---|
given |
new |
||
theme |
rheme |
||
Subject |
Predicate |
||
Basic clause |
A runaway shopping trolley |
hit Jude last week. |
|
Passive |
|
Jude |
was hit by a runaway shopping trolley last week. |
Adjunct first |
Last week |
Jude |
was hit by a runaway shopping trolley. |
It-cleft |
|
It |
was a runaway shopping trolley that hit Jude last week. |
Pseudo-cleft |
|
What hit Jude last week |
was a shopping trolley. |
In addition to the passives and cleft constructions illustrated below, existentials, dislocation and inversion can all be used to reorganise word order in English.
Topic comment
The topic comment structure is the normal strategy for organising a series of sentences in English discourse. In this pattern, each sentence begins by referring to the 'topic'. This is done by invoking an established idea or entity. The sentence is completed by providing a 'comment' on the topic. The following excerpt from ABC News online and AAP is a good example of this strategy, with each sentence after the first referring back to a person already mentioned in the preceding text.
Lawyers for former Gold Coast doctor Mohamed Haneef have welcomed the resignation of Australian Federal Police Commissioner Mick Keelty. Commissioner Keelty will leave his post on September 2, the 35th anniversary of the beginning of his police career, with two years still to run on his contract. He has been in the position since 2001 and his current appointment was due to run until 2011.
Commissioner Keelty was in charge of AFP during the investigation into Dr Haneef's alleged links to the failed terrorist attacks in London and Glasgow in 2007. Dr Haneef was imprisoned for two weeks and had his visa revoked during the investigation, but more than a year later, the AFP cleared him and dropped all the charges against him.
(From http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/05/06/2562256.htm?section=justin accessed 06/05/09)
In this example, the topic of most clauses is also the grammatical subject. This is true for each of the following clauses:
Lawyers for former Gold Coast doctor Mohamed Haneef have welcomed the resignation of Australian Federal Police Commissioner Mick Keelty.
Commissioner Keelty will leave his post on September 2
He has been in the position since 2001
his current appointment was due to run until 2011
Commissioner Keelty was in charge of AFP during the investigation into Dr Haneef's alleged links to the failed terrorist attacks in London and Glasgow in 2007
Dr Haneef was imprisoned for two weeks and had his visa revoked during the investigation
If we rewrote the text so that the topic and comment of each clause were reversed the text is much more difficult to understand. Some of it doesn't seem to make much sense at all... (We have left the first sentence as it was since there is no preceding context to indicate what the topic should be in this case.)
Lawyers for former Gold Coast doctor Mohamed Haneef have welcomed the resignation of Australian Federal Police Commissioner Mick Keelty. With two years still to run on his contract, on September 2, the 35th anniversary of the beginning of his police career, Commissioner Keelty will leave his post. Since 2001 he has been in the position and until 2011his current appointment was due to run.
During the investigation into Dr Haneef's alleged links to the failed terrorist attacks in London and Glasgow in 2007, Commissioner Keelty was in charge of AFP. For two weeks Dr Haneef was imprisoned and during the investigation had his visa revoked, but more than a year later, the AFP cleared him and dropped all the charges against him.
This illustrates that if you want your hearer or reader to follow along with what you are trying to communicate, it is a good strategy to provide connections through the text by identifying established entities in the discourse in the topic slot and using them to anchor the rest of your message.
End focus
Another way of thinking about this strategy of starting with established information is to think about the contrast between given and new information. Since we are all used to the strategy of identifying given information with the start of the sentence, we are all good at keeping an eye out for new information later in the sentence. In fact, as English speakers, we all typically work on the assumption that the new information, that is, the part of the sentence that deserves to be the focus of our attention will be the end of the sentence. This is the principle of 'end focus'. If you want the reader or hearer to take in new information, a good place for it to be is at the end of your sentence.
This also represents an alternative perspective on the difficulties posed by the news report we have been playing with above. In reading the modified text we are troubled by finding old information in positions where we would expect to be told something new.
Front focus
Doing the unexpected is a great strategy for drawing attention to something. So, if you really want to grab your hearer's or reader's attention, it is also possible to deliberately put new information at the front of the sentence. By putting new information where it is not expected, you signal to your audience that you have something to highlight. Here's another modified version of part of the same text with the adverb phrases expressing time in front focus. Notice how placing the time of each event in front focus changes the feel of the whole text.
On September 2, the 35th anniversary of the beginning of his police career, Commissioner Keelty will leave his post, with two years still to run on his contract. Since 2001 he has been in the position and until 2011 his current appointment was due to run.
In 2007 Commissioner Keelty was in charge of AFP during the investigation into Dr Haneef's alleged links to the failed terrorist attacks in London and Glasgow...
End weight
We tend to process texts most efficiently when given information is presented before new information. In addition, we also understand sequences in which short and simple sequences come before long and complex ones better than the other way around. As a result, people tend to put these 'heavier' elements towards the end of the sentence. This is the principle of 'end weight'. As with front focus, there are a range of strategies available in English to overcome the usual order of subject then predicate to ensure that end weight is managed appropriately.
Consider the following example, taken from the comments submitted in connection with the article quoted above:
Following his carpeting from Howard and reversal of his comments, he lost respect from, I believe, most of the country.
This excerpt shows how it can be difficult to balance competing goals and strategies. The writer of this comment has failed to follow the end weight principle and comes off sounding rather verbose as a result. Perhaps this choice in ordering the phrases reflects the importance the writer attached to highlighting their version of particular details about the events in question, leading them to place this rather 'heavy' sequence in the front focus position. In order to follow the principle of end weight, we could edit the sentence as follows:
I believe he lost respect from most of the country following his carpeting from Howard.